Psychoanalysis Abraham Maslow s Hierarchy Of Needs

Alex Reuter Mrs. Hollandsworth A.P Literature and Composition 15 September 2014 Psychoanalysis in Jane Abraham Harold Maslow is his name and psychology is his game. Abraham Maslow, an evolutionary psychologist was not well treated as a young child. His mom would put a lock on the refrigerator and only take it off when she felt like it, and his dad would publicly announce that Maslow was ugly. Despite these challenges, Maslow made the decision to make a difference in peoples lives. For this reason he became a psychologist. Maslow said that the primary study of psychology should be experiencing the person and thats exactly what he did. Maslow also states â€Å"That human beings by nature, want things and are motivated to acquire things that they do not have, and that once one set of needs are satisfied, those needs are no longer a motivator†(Maslow 1943). Maslow started studying human behaviors and childhood development and eventually came up with the hierarchy of needs. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs shows through in many authors works and is really e vident in Jane Eyre. Throughout the novel Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, Janes character represents Maslows hierarchy of needs and childhood development ultimately showing that until self-actualization is reached happiness is unattainable. Maslows hierarchy of needs has five levels of physical and emotional needs: The first level physiological and the last level being self-actualization. Maslow states that until one achieves theShow MoreRelatedMaslows Theory1321 Words   |  6 PagesBiography Abraham Harold Maslow, the founder of humanistic psychology, was born in New York City on April 1, 1908 and died at home in California in 1970 (Maslow, Abraham Hutchinson Encyclopedia of Biography, 2010) (Abraham H. Maslow: a Bibliography: Professional biography, 1970). He received his AB, MA, and PhD in psychology from the University of Wisconsin (1970). His work as a United States (U.S.) psychologist started in 1932 after he started working as a teaching fellow (1970). Maslow also taughtRead MoreHumanistic Approach1074 Words   |  5 Pagescan be a difference of opinions. Abraham Maslow studied the development of personality. Maslow developed his own personality theory based on the basic human needs. His hierarchy of needs pyramid shows the influences of human needs to the formation of unique individual personality. There are biological factors that influence the formation of individual personality that play a factor. By reviewing the relationships between biologica l factors and Maslow s theory of personality you will beRead MoreAbraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and the Road to Self-Actualization2459 Words   |  10 PagesAbraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and the Road to Self-Actualization PSY 330: Theories of Personality January 30th, 2012 Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs and the Road to Self-Actualization Abraham Maslow was an American theorist that was one of the advocates of humanistic psychology. He believed that self-actualization is â€Å"a situation that exists when a person is acting in accordance with his or her full potential† (Hergenhahn Read MoreAbraham Maslow s Influence On Psychology1159 Words   |  5 Pages Abraham H. Maslow, is one of the founders of humanistic movement in psychology in late 1950 s. Maslow held a great deal of importance for personal freedom and individuality which would help define psychological health. Maslow felt that psychology before his time was primarily focused on people’s ailments and faults in their personalities. In an interview, Being Abraham Maslow with Warren Bennis, he stated that their was a â€Å"huge, big gaping hole in psychology.† When researching psychology was lookingRead MoreThe Hierarchy Of Needs Theory Essay1267 Words   |  6 PagesThe Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory Living beings act, and their behavior is driven by incentives, needs, and drives. Animals act only by their instinctive desires. The behavior of animals is due to instinctive desires rather than by thought. However, where does man s behavior originate from? Many psychologists have studied this topic with interest. Man s behavior is also influenced by human desires. However, how human desires influence human behavior is a very important issue. OnRead MoreA Theory Based On The Art Of Loving, Albert Rogers, And Maslow1630 Words   |  7 Pagesthree theorist; Fromm, Rogers, and Maslow. Each individual presented a unique aspect, idea, or theory that was instrumental to the construction of my own. It does not have a working title but I can tell you that it most definitely has a purpose and a set of ideals that I believe will and can improve the lives of many. My theory is based upon three distinct principles and many minor tidbits. The first is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs this is a description of needs that motivate behavior, second is Fromm’sRead MoreEvaluate The Theory Of Motivation From Humanistic Perspective Essay1624 Words   |  7 Pagesis a process that influences goal directed behavior. Drives are considered internal factors that push an organism into action. Throughout our lives, we have certain drives within us that motivate us to behave and act in a certain way to fulfill our needs and desires. We have biological, social and emotional drives within us. Without motivation, we would not have the ability to take action and have the potential to achieve self-actualization. There are various motivational theories. The incentive theoryRead MoreThe Theories Of Psychology And Psychology1844 Words   |  8 Pagestheories about how the mind works and use human behavior as a clue to the workings of the mind. Everything a person does, think, feel and say is determined by the functioning of the mind. There are three forces of psychology, whic h are behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and humanism, and there are six schools of thoughts in psychology and each has its unique and specific approach and represents the major theories in psychology. Functionalism is generally thought to be the first school of thought, psychologicalRead MoreCommunication in Health and Social Care Essay1670 Words   |  7 PagesAccording to Abraham Maslows humanistic theory of learning,learning contributes to psychological health. The goals of learning includes discovery of ones vocation or destiny;knowledge of values;realization of life as precious;acquisition of peak experiences; senses of accomplishment;satisfaction of psychological needs;awareness of beauty and wonder of life;impulse control;developing choice and grappling with critical existential problems of life. Applying Abraham Maslows Hierarchy of needs in The CareRead MoreThe Psychodynamic And Humanistic Theory Of Personality1557 Words   |  7 Pageshelp. The psychodynamic theory originally derived from the Psychoanalysis and it’s based on key analytical concepts. These concepts are from Freud’s ideas on personality development, psychosexual stages of development and defence mechanism. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed a wide range of theories. His main focus of interest was in the explanation and treatment of mental disorders, in particular the treatment method known as psychoanalysis. Therefore his are sometimes called the psychoanalytic theories

The Lost Secret of Term Paper Writing Service Superiorpapers

The Lost Secret of Term Paper Writing Service Superiorpapers Understanding Term Paper Writing Service Superiorpapers You can receive a lot of our services for a fair price. Once you set the order, you are going to be asked to create a new Ultius account. From here, you are going to be in a position to look at and download your final purchase. Who Else Wants to Learn About Term Paper Writing Service Superiorpapers? After you start looking for a business that features custom papers, the procedure can last forever. Because of this from using our services, you will get a custom-written paper you may use for your own purposes. The procedure is quite easy. It was designed to be fast, convenient and thorough so that you can get a great end-product. In the event that you were searching for the very best research paper writing service to employ, search no more. Write your papers with us, and you are going to be pleased with the final item. You are able to order pieces of papers you're assigned to write also. Our college term papers for sale supply you with an excellent deal every moment. Our term paper writing service enables customers to select the writer they need to work with based on their abilities and assignment requirements. Use a dependable paper writing service when don't have any idea what things to do with your created assignments. When it has to do with writing, distinguishing top high quality work from poorly tackled writing challenges is far from a tough task. If you think about getting professional writing service, it's understandable there could be concerns about plagiarism. After all, should you not get your term paper delivered on time you're just wasting your money and you will receive a poor grade fo r not turning in your assignment in time. If you're puzzling who can assist you with the assignment at the lowest price as you're a student and may be pressed for money, you're at the correct place as we offer cheap customized writings. There's tons of individuals who would look at ordering from an inexpensive paper writing service. Thus, the only logical way out is to begin searching for skilled assistance with term paper. A professional writing service can make all of the difference on earth. If you're looking for the very best writing services online, you're in the perfect location. In case you have any of the above mentioned reasons for getting expert help online, make the suitable choice let us assist you with your assignments! Every one of the aforementioned listed service options are made to help you conserve time, money and receive the most out of your experience with us. If you are in need of a well-written paper on short notification, the group of specialist essay writers at Grademiners is simply what you're searching for. For instance, the author of a specific essay could already be having the simple idea about what he or she's probably supposed to be writing about. Also, it is going to be indeed helpful if you were able to supply the writer with the textbook you are using in class or any extra materials which will see to it that the writer employs the most relevant sources while complet ing the paper. It is possible to collaborate with the writer we assign as much as you wish to, and you'll get completely free revisions if you are not totally pleased with the completed paper. The most important part of a term paper is discussion. Our primary and just goal is to help you in locating the ideal paper writer. In case you're indecisive to pay a person to compose your essay, explore other facets of our websites or contact our support team for any extra guidelines. Whether you own a question about our research paper assistance, need help ordering a research paper, or simply wish to talk with your writer, we're always here to assist you in any way we can. Term paper help would become your savior! Another issue is that you may vice versa select the topic that's too hackneyed and won't impress a professor.

Ethics Is Basically A Part ACS Constitution-Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Ethics Is Basically A Part Of The ACS Constitution? Answer: Introducation The ACS Code of Ethics is basically a part of the ACS Constitution. Being an ACS member, it is important to follow some guidelines and one should always advance the honor, dignity and maintain effectiveness of being a professional. In the following case study, a security administrator of a company of 500 employees is asked by his manager to present a weekly report on which web pages has been accessed by individual employees and should try to flag those websites which contains inappropriate contents and which are questionable (Elliott 2016). But he remembers that the employees have not been asked to sign in any agreement where there is a guideline on which website they can visit and which not. But on the other hand, he is also aware that if the report is Accounting then the employees would be penalized for their misconduct in the office premises (Leicester 2016). The ethical dilemma that the person is currently facing is that he needs to make a report on who is accessing which websites and have to present it to his manager but the problem is that the employees were under no agreement that they have to view this or that particular website (Leicester 2016). With this he is also facing another dilemma that if he present that report, the employees would be penalized for which everybody will blame him. One thing he can do is to talk to his managers and tell them that the employees were not under any agreement. If they really want to know something like this, they need to update their policies about this particular issue and after this he can present a report as if the report is presented earlier, the employees may question about the authenticity of the data and they can counter themselves by saying that nothing was written on the policies when they were signing them (Board 2014). This misconduct can fall into three main ACS Code of Conducts like The Primacy of the Public Interest, Honesty and Professionalism (acs.org.au 2017). Under Primacy of the Public Interest, the company should not try to interfere with the intellectual property of others as that is totally personal and no one would like that anyone sniffing into their personal life (acs.org.au 2017). Also with this, they should try to provide the confidentiality and provide privacy to the users information and not look into their personal matter of what they are browsing or searching over the internet. Under Honesty, the employees should know the difference between professional life and personal life. When working in an office, they should try to maintain the decency and should not browse the websites which are explicitly offensive so they should keep their personal interest out of office premises and maintain the dignity (acs.org.au 2017). Under Professionalism, companies should take appropriate actions on those who break the rules so that it may set an example on others so that others may not break the rules and regulation like in this case, the employees who are accessing the website should be held guilty and appropriate actions should be taken against them so that other employees will not access the site again (acs.org.au 2017). Also, management should co-operate with the company as whatever steps they take, they are taking for the betterment of the company as well as the employees. Every employee in an organization should follow all the norms and policies and should try to maintain decency in the office premises. Also the company personnel should revise their policies timely in order to overcome the defects that are present within the company like this company should have done with the accessibility of website for the employees. As there were no guidelines, they got the freedom to access these websites. References Leicester, N., 2016. Ethics in the IT Profession: Does a Code of Ethics have an Effect on Professional Behaviour?. Board, B.A.C., 2014. Professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts.Retrieved April,7, p.2016. acs.org.au (2017). [online] Available at: https://www.acs.org.au/content/dam/acs/.../Code-of-Professional-Conduct_v2.1.pdf [Accessed 24 Mar. 2017]. Elliott, C.M., 2016. A Framework for Ethical business.

Nursing Has Evolved from Being an Occupation free essay sample

During the past decade nurse theorists and educationalists have been attempting to establish nursing as an academic discipline Nurse education is rapidly moving away from a single scientific or technical colleges of nursing into institutes of higher education. In this paper I had the privilege to discuss how Nursing has evolved from being an occupation to being a profession and an academic discipline. According to the Collins English Dictionary, An occupation isa persons regular work or profession; job or principal activity, any activity on which time is spent by a person, the act of occupying or the state of being occupied, the control of a country by a foreign military and the period of time that a nation, place, or position is occupied. Occupation is an activity or task with which one occupies oneself; usually specifically the productive activity, service, trade, or craft for which one is regularly paid. One way to promote development is to clarify the professional role. We will write a custom essay sample on Nursing Has Evolved from Being an Occupation or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Oxford English Dictionary defines a profession as a paid occupation, especially one that involves prolonged training and a formal qualification and in its definition of a professional; the dictionary uses the words competent, skillful, or assured. Professional competence and skills are learnt through specialized training, maintained through continuing professional development and embedded in the notion of behaving ethically, in the interest of the client or patient, the public or society. Professions play a role in every part of human society, and we all rely on professionals at multiple points in our daily lives from dentists to teachers, from pension managers to careers advisors, from town planners to paramedics. We rely on professionals to be experts, to know what to do when we need them to, and to act in our best interests. Back in the nineteenth century, the professions were seen to be law, religion, and medicine. Nowadays, the number of professions is ever-increasing, as occupations become more specialized in nature and more professionalized in terms of requiring certain standards of initial and ongoing education so that anything from automotive technicians to web designers can be defined as professionals. The words occupation and profession are interchangeable. Profession and occupation are almost the same, with only minor differences between them. The difference between occupation and profession can be stated with a simple example: Designing a building would be called a profession, whereas, constructing a building is an occupation. A profession needs extensive training and specialized knowledge. On the other hand, an occupation does not need any extensive training. A person with an occupation need not have specialized knowledge of his trade. A profession can be called an occupation when a person is paid for his particular skills, and his deep knowledge. Doctors, engineers, advocates, journalists, scientists, and many others, fall under the professional category. On the other hand, persons engaged in an occupation are not paid for their knowledge, but only for what they produce. Drivers, clerks and technicians fall under the category of occupation. Unlike a person engaged in an occupation, a professional has to undergo higher education. It is noticeable that a profession tends to be autonomous. When considering responsibilities, a profession demands that the responsibility lies with the individual. Moreover, only a professional will be able to assess fellow professionals. In regards to an occupation, no one has autonomous power; he or she is supervised by another person. Moreover, any person can make assessments, as this type of work does not require high degrees of knowledge and skill. Well, professionals enjoy a higher social status than a person engaged in an occupation. Another difference that can be seen between profession and occupation is that the former is guided through certain ethical codes, and is regulated by a certain statute. The term discipline originates from the Latin words discipulus, whichmeans pupil, and disciplina, which means teaching (noun). Related to it is also the word disciple as in the disciples of Jesus. A dictionary definition will give a whole range of quite different meanings of the term from training to submission to an authority to the control and self-control of behavior. As a verb it means training someone to follow a rigorous set of instructions, but also punishing and enforcing obedience. The medical meaning of discipline is a medical regimen imposed by a doctor on a patient to the patient’s benefit. It follows that the academic discipline can be seen as a form of specific and rigorous scientific training that will turn out practitioners who have been disciplined by their discipline for their own ood. In addition, discipline also means policing certain behaviors or ways of thinking. Individuals who have deviated from their discipline can be brought back in line or excluded. As a result, there is an important moral dimension to discipline that defines how people should behave or think. As previously mentioned, the term academic discipline certainly incorporates many el ements of the meaning of discipline. At the same time, it has also become a technical term for the organization of learning and the systematic production of new knowledge. Often disciplines are identified with taught subjects, but clearly not every subject taught at university can be called a discipline. There is more to disciplines than the fact that something is a subject taught in an academic setting. In fact, there is a whole list of criteria and characteristics, which indicate whether a subject is indeed a distinct discipline. A general list of characteristics would include disciplines have a particular object of research (e. g. aw, society, politics), though the object of research maybe shared with another discipline, disciplines have a body of accumulated specialist knowledge referring to their object of research, which is specific to them and not generally shared with another discipline, disciplines have theories and concepts that can organizethe accumulated specialist knowledge effectively, disciplines use specific terminologies or a specific technical language adjusted to their research object, disciplines have developed specific research met hods according to their specific research requirements and maybe most crucially, disciplines must have some institutional manifestation in the form of subjects taught at universities or colleges, respective academic departments and professional associations connected to it. Only through institutionalization are disciplines able to reproduce themselves from one generation to the next by means of specific educational preparation. A new discipline is therefore usually founded by the way of creating a professional leader devoted to it at an established university. Some disciplines would be considered to be more useful, more rigorous, more difficult, or more important than others. Nurses have specialized education and training validated by professional licensure. Nurses have a code of ethics and established practice standards, they are bound to adhere to, a violation of which can result in their license being revoked or sanctioned. They have their own body of ongoing research that shapes and governs our practice. Nurses work autonomously within their scope of practice. They formulate and carry out their own plan of care for clients when applicable; they apply judgment, use critical thinking skills, and make nursing diagnoses. Nurses use their specialized knowledge, experience, and skill set to initiate live-saving measures, improve and promote the health and well-being of the planet, and ease pain, suffering, and loss. They are all united in that common mission regardless of where they work, their position title, or whether they are employed, unemployed, or self-employed. Nursing has evolved from being an occupation to being a profession and an academic discipline. Nursing is variously described as a profession, a discipline, an occupation. The meanings assigned to such words and the expectations, demands, and responsibilities that each reveals to and or exacts from those privileged to call themselves registered nurse provides a splendid arena for viewing the struggle of nursing as an intellectual endeavor embedded in its own distinctive knowledge base, experiences, purposes, and values. Currently, pressure exerted within and without nursing to adopt the self-limiting potential and subordinated position that a professional discipline orientation and applied degree education talk on nursing is increasing. Nurses roles and mission, ideals, and ethical and practice standards are one a profession and also the attributes of an academic discipline.

101 Great Science Experiments Book for Kids

101 Great Science Experiments Book for Kids 101 Great Science Experiments: A Step-by-Step Guide is a well-designed and organized guide to brief science experiments in eleven different categories, including temperature, light, color, sound, magnets and electricity. Like many other books published by DK Publishing, 101 Great Science Experiments provides easy-to-follow directions, illustrated with color photographs. Each experiment includes a short description of the experiment and why it works and illustrated step-by-step directions. 101 Great Science Experiments will appeal to 8 to 14 year-olds. Pros Cons Very well-organizedNice variety of experimentsEasy-to-follow steps for each experimentSteps illustrated with photographs of kids doing the stepsDetailed table of contents and indexNot enough safety information, and what little there is of it is too easy to missNot for young scientists who want to do experiments without prior knowledge of the outcomes Book Description Publisher: DK Publishing, Inc.One-half page to one-page experimentsEach experiment illustrated with multiple color photographsLength: 120 pagesDetailed Table of Contents and IndexEleven different categories of hands-on science experimentsFor Ages: 8 to 14 yearsCopyright: 1993ISBN: 9780756619183Categories: science, hands-on, nonfiction Review of 101 Great Science Experiments There is a lot to like about 101 Great Science Experiments: A Step-by-Step Guide by Neil Ardley. Like many of the other childrens books published by DK Publishing, it is beautifully designed and is illustrated with high-quality photographs. If your kids tweens or young teens enjoy hands-on science activities, 101 Great Science Experiments will appeal to them. The science experiments in 101 Great Science Experiments are organized by category: Air and Gases, Water and Liquids, Hot and Cold, Light, Color, Growth, Senses, Sound and Music, Magnets, Electricity, and Motion and Machines. Since the experiments dont generally build on one another, your young scientist can pick and choose experiments as desired. However, note that some of the longer experiments tend to be in last four categories in the book. The experiments are generally ones that can be done in a short period of time. The directions for most of them are one-half to one-page long. In some cases, all of the materials are ones you will have on hand. In other cases, a trip to the store (hardware or grocery store and/or hobby shop) may be required. Unlike books that challenge the reader to determine the outcome of a problem by doing an experiment as in What happens when you mix sodium bicarbonate and vinegar? 101 Great Science Experiments tells the reader what will happen and why and invites the reader to try it. For example, in the case of mixing sodium bicarbonate and vinegar, the reader is invited to Make a volcano erupt. Numbered steps are provided, most with an accompanying photograph showing a boy or girl doing the step. Both the introduction to each experiment and the steps are very briefly, yet fully, stated. In many cases, additional related science information is provided for the experiment. The Table of Contents, which is divided into the categories of science experiments, provides a helpful overview of the types of experiments in 101 Great Science Experiments. The detailed index will assist the reader interested in a particular aspect of science to find what is available in the book. I would have appreciated a longer section at the beginning of the book on safety rather than the seven-sentence boxed section on the first Contents page. It would be easy to miss the reminder directed to the young reader that for every step with the symbol of two people, You must ask an adult to help you with it. Knowing that you will be able to ensure that your child is aware of, and follows, safety procedures. In every other respect, 101 Great Science Experiments: A Step-by-Step Guide is an excellent book. It provides a lot of interesting experiments that will add to your 8- to 14-year-olds knowledge of science. Since it provides an opportunity to try experiments in a variety of categories, it may also ignite further interest in a particular category that will lead to your child seeking out additional information and books. More Fun Science Projects for Kids Make a Dry Ice Crystal BallHow to Grow Sugar CrystalsHow to Create Green FireMake a Rainbow in a Glass

US Historical Newspapers Online by State

US Historical Newspapers Online by State Search indexed newspapers or browse the actual digitized pages of hundreds of digitized historical newspapers online. This listing of historical newspapers online by state includes many, but not all, of the available U.S. historical newspapers online. Most historical newspapers listed here are free, but those that require a subscription are marked accordingly. Alabama Birmingham Iron Age, 1874-1887 - Free, from the Birmingham Public Library Digital Collections Alaska Tundra Times, 1962-1997 - The voice of Alaskan Natives, online for free access from the Tuzzy Library at Ilisagvik College. Arizona Casa Grande Newspaper Project, 1912-2007 - Search more than 267,735 historical newspaper pages online for free thanks to the Casa Grande Public Library. Arkansas Northwest Arkansas Times (Fayetteville), 1937-1977 - Part of Ancestry.coms historical newspaper collection, along with selected years of several other Arkansas newspapers. Subscription required.Arkansas Gazette, 1819-1899 - Just one of several historical Arkansas newspapers available online through GenealogyBank.com. Subscription required. California Amador Ledger, 1900-1911 - Online as part of the free California Digital Newspaper CollectionAlta California, 1849-1910 - a daily San Francisco newspaper, online as part of the free California Digital Newspaper CollectionEl Clamor Publico, 1855-1859 - the first Spanish-language newspaper in California after the American occupation. Online for free fro the USC Libraries Digital Archive.Los Angeles Herald, 1900-1910 - Online as part of the free California Digital Newspaper CollectionSan Francisco Call, 1900-1910 - San Franciscos morning newspaper until 1913, online as part of the free California Digital Newspaper Collection Colorado Colorado Historic Newspapers Collection - 140 historical newspapers online, published in Colorado from 1859-1923, including the Daily Rocky Mountain News from Denver. Free Connecticut The Hartford Courant, 1764-1984 - Online archives from the Hartford Courant offers free index searching, but requires a per article fee to access actual newspaper documents. Florida Boca Raton Newspapers Collection, 1938-1970 - Free collection of several hometown newspapers from the Boca Raton Historical Society.Chronicling America, 1836–1922 - This free historical newspapers collection from the Library of Congress offers access to several dozen different Florida newspapers, including the Gainesville Daily Sun, Pensacola Daily News and the Florida Agriculturist.Florida Digital Newspaper Library, mid-1800s through present - Hundreds of Florida newspapers have been digitized and made available online for free viewing through this massive project.St. Petersburg Times/St. Petersburg Evening Independent, 1901-present - Google News Archive hosts free digitized copies of these two long-time St. Petersburg newspapers. Enter St. Petersburg or the paper name in the source box. Georgia The Cherokee Phoenix, 1828-1833 - American Indian newspaper, online for free viewing as part of the Georgia Historic Newspapers collection.The Colored Tribune, 1876 - Savannah-based, African-American newspaper. From the Georgia Historic Newspapers collection.The Dublin Post, 1878-1887 - Online for free viewing as part of the Georgia Historic Newspapers collection.Rome News-Tribune, 1910-1999 - Selected issues, most from 1910, and from 1950-1990, are available online for free viewing through Google News Archive. Enter Rome News in the source box. Hawaii Ulukau: Hawaiian Electronic Library, 1834-1948 - A collection of historic Hawaiian language newspapers available for free searching and browsing.Hawaiian Language Newspapers, 1834-1927 - More than a dozen historic newspapers with free online access from the University of Hawaii. Scattered dates and titles available. Illinois Barrington Review, 1914-1930 - Free access to full–page reproductions from January 1, 1914–December 29, 1921 and April 23, 1925–November 13, 1930. Also available, an index to births, deaths and marriages from the Barrington Courier-Review from 1890-2006.Illinois Digital Newspaper Collections, 1895-1945 - Titles available among the more than three dozen newspaper titles include the Daily Illini (1916-1945), the Urbana Daily Courier (1903-1935), and the Express - Tallula, Illinois (1895-1896, scattered issues). Free!Chicago Tribune Archive – Historic article images from 1852 to the present. There is a fee for individual article access, or available via subscription from ProQuest Historical Newspapers (check with your local library).Chicago Defender Archive – Historic article images from 1905–1975. There is a fee for individual article access, or available via subscription from ProQuest Historical Newspapers (check with your local library).Quinc y Historical Newspaper Archive, 1835-1919 - Free access to the Quincy Daily Whig, Quincy Daily Herald and Quincy Daily Journal. Flora Digital Newspapers Collection - Free, online historical newspapers from Flora and Clay County in Southern Illinois from the Illinois Digital Archives.Chronicling America, 1836–1922 – Includes the Chicago Eagle (1889–1922) and the Cairo Bulletin (1868–1878), plus a few others. Indiana Hoosier State Chronicles  - Indianas digital historic newspaper program offers online access to several dozen Indiana newspaper titles,  encompassing over 58,000 issues and over 360,000 pages.Muncie Post-Democrat, 1921-1950 - Includes issues of the historic anti-Ku Klux Klan newspaper published by George Dale from 1921 until his death in 1936, and continued as a local newspaper after his death until the 1950s. Free!NewspaperArchive  - The Indiana Historical Society partnered with Newspaper Archive to digitize 5,625 rolls of microfilm representing 760 Indiana newspapers, encompassing more than 2.5 million newspaper pages dated 1924 and earlier. View for free  in the William H. Smith Memorial Library, or online with a subscription to NewspaperArchive. Iowa Adams County Free Press, 1876-2000 - Over 100,000 digitized pages online for free searching and viewing.Cedar Rapids Newspaper Archives, 1857-1998 - Free online access to a number of Cedar Rapids area historical newspapers, including the  Cedar Rapids Gazette,  Des Moines Daily News  and  Iowa State Leader.Charles City Press, 1930-2007 - A free online database containing more than 3,300 historical newspaper pages from the Floyd County Museum.Sioux County Newspaper Archives, 1878-2000 - Search or browse over a dozen Sioux County historical newspapers for free. Kansas Kansas Memory Historic Newspapers, 1850-1987 - Selected pages and articles from historical newspapers across the state.Chronicling America, 1836–1922 - Explore selected issues from over 20 historical Kansas newspapers in this free digitized collection from the Library of Congress.GenealogyBank - Historic Kansas Newspapers, 1841-1981 - Selected (mostly short) runs from over 68 historic African-American Kansas newspapers can be searched and viewed through a subscription to GenealogyBank, including such newspapers as the Wichita Searchlight and the State Ledger (Topeka).Ancestry Historical Newspaper Collection - Kansas  - Subscription-based site Ancestry.com offers digitized issues of the  Atchison Globe, in its various incarnations, from 1882-1976, plus the  Great Bend Tribune,  Salina Journal, and  Western Kansas Press. Kentucky Historic Kentucky Newspapers, 1896-1916 - The Kentuckiana Digital Library has over 35 historic Kentucky newspapers online for free searching and viewing. Available issues vary by paper - from one to several thousand. Louisiana New Orleans Bee, 1827-1953 - Free PDF files are browseable by date, but there is no other search feature. From the Jefferson Parish Library.Louisiana Newspaper Access Program  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ A small number of the earliest newspaper issues from each of Louisianas 64 parishes.Chronicling America, 1836–1922 – This free historical newspapers collection from the Library of Congress offers access to over fifty historical Louisiana newspapers, including the Louisiana Democrat, the Colfax Chronicle and the Madison Journal.Google News Archive  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Digitized Louisiana newspapers in the Google News Archive collection include a large run of the New Orleans Commercial Bulletin, the Louisiana Courier, the New-Orleans Tagliche Deutfche Beitung and the Louisiana Staats-Zeitung. Maryland Google News Archive  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Browsable and searchable Maryland newspapers in the Google News Archive collection include the Baltimore Afro-Eagle (1933-2003) and the American Eagle (1856-1857).Maryland Early State Records Online, Newspapers, 1802–1947 – Browsable only, these digitized early Maryland newspapers date as early as the 1802 American and Commercial Daily Advertiser to the Civil War era Baltimore Clipper and more recent Cambridge Chronicle (1830–1947).Maryland Gazette Collection, 1728–1839 – Browsable, digitized pages from the Maryland State Archives. Massachusetts The Barnstable Patriot Digital Archive, 1830–1930 - Searchable digitized newspaper covers Cape Cod and the Islands, plus the Hyannis Patriot (1894-1930) and Sandwich Observer (1910-1911). From the Sturgis Library.The Chatham Monitor Cape Cod Chronicle Historical Collection  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The Eldredge Public Library has digitized and made available online their entire collection of historic Chatham newspapers.Provincetown Advocate – Search the Provincetown Public Librarys digitized collection of Provincetown area newspapers, including the Provincetown Advocate, Provincetown Banner, Provincetown Beacon and News Beacon. Scroll down to the bottom of the page for the search link.Boston Globe Historical Archive  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Historic article images from 1872-1922, plus current content from 1979-present. There is a fee for individual article access, or available via subscription from ProQuest Historical Newspapers (check with your  local library).The Liberator  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Digiti zed images from 1831-1865 can be searched or browsed for this influential anti-slavery newspaper published by abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. Available with a subscription to Accessible Archives. Michigan Cass City Newspapers  - Free PDF images of the Cass City Chronicle (1981–2009) and Enterprise (1881–1906) from the Rawson Memorial Library.The Commercial Record  (Saugatuck) – Back issues of this Saugatuck-Douglas community newspaper are available for browsing for most of the period 1868–1967. A small portion of the content has been indexed and is searchable.Grosse Pointe Newspapers  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Includes the Grosse Pointe News (1940–present), Grosse Pointe Review (1930–1952), and Grosse Pointe Civic News (1923–1934). From the Grosse Pointe Public Library.Making of Modern Michigan  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Dozens of historical newspapers dating back to the mid-1800s are available from a cooperative of 52 participating libraries, including the Manchester Enterprise (1867-1892) and Owosso Press (1862-1869).Lake Orion Review  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Searchable archive covering the years 1868-1957 from the Orion Township Public Library. Minnesota Holt Weekly News  - Searchable and browsable archive of the community newspaper Holt Weely News from 1911-1952.Minnesota Digital Newspaper Project  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ A great gateway page to the Minnesota historical newspapers available online at Chronicling America, including various incarnations of the Saint Paul Globe (1878–1905) and Bemidji Pioneer (1896–1922).Winona Newspaper Project  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ This searchable archive includes available issues of the Winona Argus (1854 and 1857), the Winona Daily Republican (1860–1901), the Winona Republican-Herald (1901–1954), and the Winona Daily News (1954–1976). Mississippi The Citizens Council  - Digitized issues of the newspaper of the white supremacist Citizens’ Council of Mississippi, published from October 1955 to September 1961.Ancestry Historical Newspaper Collection, Mississippi  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Subscription-based access to ten historical Mississippi newspapers, including several incarnations of the Daily Democrat Times (1904–1912 and 1930–1977) from Greenville, Mississippi.The Memphis Daily Appeal  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Although located in Memphis, Tennessee, this newspaper included several Mississippi towns in its coverage area, including Hernando, Grenada, Jackson, and Vicksburg, Mississippi. Missouri Chillicothe Constitution Tribune  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Searchable archive of more than 320,447 newspaper pages from the Chillicothe Constitution Tribune, 1889-2006.Missouri Digital Heritage, Newspapers  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Online archive of historic newspapers from St. Louis and other locations from the collections of various Missouri libraries and historical societies.Chronicling America1836–1922 – Over three dozen historical Missouri newspapers can be searched or browsed in this free online collection from the Library of Congress. Includes the St. Joseph Observer, Jackson Herald, and many others. Montana Chronicling America  - A small handful of Montana historical newspapers are available online as part of this free Library of Congress project; the two largest runs are The Anaconda Standard (1889-1970) and Daily Yellowstone Journal (1882-1893).Digital CharKoosta News  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Digitization of this newspaper published by the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Indian Reservation covers the years 1956 to 1961, and 1971 to 1988. Nebraska Nebraska Newspapers  - Searchable full-text of selected Nebraska newspapers published in the state before 1923, plus great background information on each newspaper. These newspapers also available through Chronicling America.Chronicling America  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Nebraska newspapers digitized in this freely available full-text database from the Library of Congress include The Dakota County Herald (1891-1965), Omaha Daily Bee (1872-1922), Columbus Journal (1874-1911) and The Red Cloud Chief (1873-1923).The Ord Quiz  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ This historic newspaper from the Ord Township Library is available as searchable PDFs, browsable by date. Nevada Las Vegas Age Digital Newspaper Collection, 1905–1924 - Digital images of the Las Vegas Age from the special collections of the Las Vegas-Clark County Library District. Published from 7 Apr 1905–30 Nov 1947, but several issues are missing, including all of 1916.Henderson Libraries Digital Collection  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Includes two newspapers dating back to the mid-20th century – The Henderson Home News (1951-current), and The Big Job and Basic Bombardier newsletters (1940s) from the BMI magnesium plant in Henderson, Nevada. New Hampshire Paper of Record  - A few short runs of historical New Hampshire papers, including The White Mountain Reporter and Carroll County Independent, are available online from the subscription-based site, Paper of Record.Newspaper Archive  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Several New Hampshire newspapers can be accessed via a subscription to Newspaper Archive, including the Portsmouth Herald (1898–2007). New Jersey Atlantic County Digitized Newspaper Collection  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Digitized newspapers published in Atlantic County from 1860-1923, including the South Jersey Republican (1863-1923) and Mays Landing Record (1877–1906).Red Bank Register Newspaper Archives  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Full text searching of this New Jersey newspaper covers the years 1878–1991. From the Middletown Township Public Library.The Bayshore Independent (Matawan)  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Select digitized issues covering the years 1971 through 2000, from the Matawan - Aberdeen Public Library.New Brunswick Daily Times  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Access to searchable, digital issues of the New Brunswick Daily Times (1871–1916), from the New Brunswick Public Library. New Mexico Chronicling America  - Nearly 5 million digitized, searchable newspaper pages from historical New Mexico newspapers can be searched online for free in this collection from the Library of Congress. Includes historical runs of The Albuquerque Citizen (1895–1909) and The (Albuquerque) Evening Herald (1914–1922).New Mexicos Digital Collections  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Digitized copies of several New Mexico newspapers (Belen News, Borderer, Revista de Taos...) are online as part of a digital collections project of the University of New Mexico University Libraries. They also host a  searchable database  for locating non-digitized New Mexico newspapers. New York NYS Historic Newspapers  - Over 4 million digitized newspapers pages from historic newspaper titles across much of New York State are available for free online searching and browsing.  Fulton History  - Dont let the title and design of this website fool you! Owner Tom Tryniski has digitized and made available online for FREE over 30 million historical newspaper pages, mostly from newspapers across the state of New York.The Brooklyn Newsstand  - The Brooklyn Public Library offers free online access  to the full run of the  Brooklyn Daily Eagle  newspaper, which was published from 1841 to 1955, as well as  Brooklyn Life, a society magazine published from 1890 to 1931.

Ekphrastic Poetry Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ekphrastic Poetry - Assignment Example In the first pairing, we see Peter Bruegel the Elder’s Landscape with the Fall of Icarus. W.H. Auden wrote Musee des Beaux Arts based on this painting. While it is probably a fine poem—W.H. Auden being a famous writer—the only real reference that caught my attention was in the second line of the poem where he referred overtly to the Dutch masters. Truthfully, Landscape wasn’t really an attention-grabbing piece of art either in several respects, although the colors were enjoyable. Additionally, even though the allegorical references to Icarus in both the painting and the poem are duly noted, such references were lost on this writer—much as one may adore art and poetry. The second poem was just about as engaging. The most interesting part was in the third stanza when it seemed as though the author was alluding to the fact that one day these men in the picture would be buried in snow at the top of the hill—true, a bit macabre, but it captured th e imagination. Mingus in Shadow was simply depressing. It’s not enough to hear about and see the picture of someone who is dead/dying—but, to hear that they were obese in life and then to talk about the grandiosity of their souls in relation to their body image—seems a bit obtuse and oversimplified as a metaphor. Rainer Maria Rilke’s poem was absolutely brilliant in so many ways.

New Approaches to Advertising Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

New Approaches to Advertising - Essay Example To be sure, consumers and businesses are using other forms of communication to gain the information that was once formally provided by advertising. Furthermore, globalization in the marketplace has not only altered the way the world does business, but effectively altered the way in which business communicate with their more globally aware consumers. To understand these shifts in the paradigm for advertising, one must first understand how advertising works in the first place, and apply this understanding of the industry to the shift in the way that it is working today.Advertising is unlike the direct communication between two people which involves a give and take experience.It is a one way exchange that is impersonal in format. People can selectively notice or avoid, accept or reject, remember or forget the experience and therefore confuse and bewilder the best of advertising plans. Advertising has always been a seemingly inescapable part of western life. It is the ultimate tool that corporations use to communicate to consumers.Through television, radio, newspapers, billboards, and the internet, corporations have benefited from advertising through increased sales.The effects of advertising have appreciably increased the quality of life of consumers.Finally, the communication potential of advertising has made it essential to the function and well-being of today's market. Advertising is an effective function of the economy that is an asset to both corporations and consumers. Corporations have made every effort to submerge consumers in their advertising since the beginning of modern civilization. They money that corporations are willing to spend delivering ads has doubled since 1976, and continues to grow by over 50% every ten years (Olson & Reynolds, 2001). Corporations and businesses are willing to devote such an enormous investment of money simply due to the fact that if done properly, advertising will more than pay for itself. Although most market experts agree that advertising is an exercise in communication and not sales generation, it is without a doubt that the ultimate goal of producing the ad is to increases sales and profits, either directly or otherwise. Throughout the years, advertising has proven effective in attracting consumers and increasing sales directly. This is achieved is two main ways. First, advertising allows businesses a chance to communicate to the consumer in order to persuade and offer reasons as to why their product would be desirable. This raises consumer interest in the product and can eventually result in increased sales. Next, advertising can be used to raise consumer awareness about special events, promotions, or discounts available or to simply remind prospective customers that the business is open and ready to offer goods and services. Advertising effects businesses by helping to build consumer confidence in an advertiser's product. People have been known to buy brands that they know of and in which they have confidence. Advertising helps to achieve this by connecting corporations and their products to consumers. This process is called "branding". Ads can help the corporation make their product known, and to create an image or reputation for the product through the content of the ad. "At Volvic 10 per cent of the buyersof the buyers of this brand of mineral water are regular and loyal and represent 50 per cent of the sales. The reputation of the brand is a source of demand and lasting attractiveness, the image of superior quality and added value justifies a premium price," (Kapferer, 1997). Advertising of this sort

LIB 316 Week 3 Final Research Paper Rough Draft Essay Example for Free

LIB 316 Week 3 Final Research Paper Rough Draft Essay Final Research Paper Rough Draft. For Week Three you are responsible for writing a rough draft for your Final Research Paper in which you analyze a specific historical theme we’ve studied as it is developed in two literary works read or discussed in the textbook during the semester. Use the â€Å"themes† list below as a guide and then once you have chosen the theme you want to examine, select two literary texts where you feel this theme is best reflected. You can choose any two texts read in this course but the selections must be from the course textbook. Your draft and final version should be organized around a thesis statement about the theme and your selected literary works. Select one of the following themes for the Final Research Paper: ? Democracy and reform movements ? Workers and the Industrial Revolution ? The â€Å"woman question† ? The â€Å"white man’s burden† ? Imperialism and the colonial project ? The Great Depression ? The impact of technology on 20th century warfare ? Holocaust/genocide ? Cold War ? Nationalism ? Totalitarianism ? Decolonization ? Race racism ? Environmentalism and climate change ? Globalization ?Hybrid national identities ? Dystopia ? Magical realism Get a map of the college campus and find and visit the important places on campus. You can get valuable information on school-specific scholarship opportunities in this way. Colleges commonly give scholarships to students who are accepted. By going to the admissions office and talking to the officer there, youll be able to know if youre getting the best deal on your education. The file LIB 316 Week 3 Final Research Paper Rough Draft To download this tutorial follow the link https://bitly. com/1wySLOi Get a map of the college campus and find and visit the important places on campus. You can get valuable information on school-specific scholarship opportunities in this way. Colleges commonly give scholarships to students who are accepted. By going to the admissions office and talking to the officer there, youll be able to know if youre getting the best deal on your education. Business General Business Final Research Paper Rough Draft. For Week Three you are responsible for writing a rough draft for your Final Research Paper in which you analyze a specific historical theme we’ve studied as it is developed in two literary works read or discussed in the textbook during the semester. Use the â€Å"themes† list below as a guide and then once you have chosen the theme you want to examine, select two literary texts where you feel this theme is best reflected. You can choose any two texts read in this course but the selections must be from the course textbook. Your draft and final version should be organized around a thesis statement about the theme and your selected literary works. Select one of the following themes for the Final Research Paper: ? Democracy and reform movements ? Workers and the Industrial Revolution ? The â€Å"woman question† ? The â€Å"white man’s burden† ? Imperialism and the colonial project ? The Great Depression ? The impact of technology on 20th century warfare ? Holocaust/genocide ? Cold War ? Nationalism ? Totalitarianism ? Decolonization ? Race racism ? Environmentalism and climate change ? Globalization ?Hybrid national identities ? Dystopia ? Magical realism

LIB 316 Week 3 Final Research Paper Rough Draft Essay Example for Free

LIB 316 Week 3 Final Research Paper Rough Draft Essay Final Research Paper Rough Draft. For Week Three you are responsible for writing a rough draft for your Final Research Paper in which you analyze a specific historical theme we’ve studied as it is developed in two literary works read or discussed in the textbook during the semester. Use the â€Å"themes† list below as a guide and then once you have chosen the theme you want to examine, select two literary texts where you feel this theme is best reflected. You can choose any two texts read in this course but the selections must be from the course textbook. Your draft and final version should be organized around a thesis statement about the theme and your selected literary works. Select one of the following themes for the Final Research Paper: ? Democracy and reform movements ? Workers and the Industrial Revolution ? The â€Å"woman question† ? The â€Å"white man’s burden† ? Imperialism and the colonial project ? The Great Depression ? The impact of technology on 20th century warfare ? Holocaust/genocide ? Cold War ? Nationalism ? Totalitarianism ? Decolonization ? Race racism ? Environmentalism and climate change ? Globalization ?Hybrid national identities ? Dystopia ? Magical realism Get a map of the college campus and find and visit the important places on campus. You can get valuable information on school-specific scholarship opportunities in this way. Colleges commonly give scholarships to students who are accepted. By going to the admissions office and talking to the officer there, youll be able to know if youre getting the best deal on your education. The file LIB 316 Week 3 Final Research Paper Rough Draft To download this tutorial follow the link https://bitly. com/1wySLOi Get a map of the college campus and find and visit the important places on campus. You can get valuable information on school-specific scholarship opportunities in this way. Colleges commonly give scholarships to students who are accepted. By going to the admissions office and talking to the officer there, youll be able to know if youre getting the best deal on your education. Business General Business Final Research Paper Rough Draft. For Week Three you are responsible for writing a rough draft for your Final Research Paper in which you analyze a specific historical theme we’ve studied as it is developed in two literary works read or discussed in the textbook during the semester. Use the â€Å"themes† list below as a guide and then once you have chosen the theme you want to examine, select two literary texts where you feel this theme is best reflected. You can choose any two texts read in this course but the selections must be from the course textbook. Your draft and final version should be organized around a thesis statement about the theme and your selected literary works. Select one of the following themes for the Final Research Paper: ? Democracy and reform movements ? Workers and the Industrial Revolution ? The â€Å"woman question† ? The â€Å"white man’s burden† ? Imperialism and the colonial project ? The Great Depression ? The impact of technology on 20th century warfare ? Holocaust/genocide ? Cold War ? Nationalism ? Totalitarianism ? Decolonization ? Race racism ? Environmentalism and climate change ? Globalization ?Hybrid national identities ? Dystopia ? Magical realism

Abraham Lincoln as a Dangerous Speaker Essay -- Presidents essays rese

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many people remember President Abraham Lincoln as being a very gifted orator as well as a dignified leader of our country. Through his many speeches and writings, Abraham Lincoln captivated American minds and gained millions of followers. In Lincoln's "Perpetuation speech," given before the Young Men's Lyceum of Springfield, Illinois, in 1838, Lincoln himself stated that our country was in great danger. He speaks of people such as Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar and Napoleon and then asks, "Is it unreasonable to expect , that some man possessed of the loftiest genius, coupled with ambition sufficient to push it to its utmost stretch, will at some time, spring up among us?" (Grafton, page 7). In this, he shares his fear that some man with great ambition and power could exist in this country who is not satisfied with just the power of the presidency and strive for more than that. I believe that Lincoln had the power to be one of those people. When Lincoln's orati ons and writings are carefully analyzed, one can see how he used his wit and intelligence to manipulate the American people. With his intelligence and immense popularity, Lincoln could have easily been one of the men that he spoke of. He used his gift as an orator to get ahead and that, I believe, made him a threat to American society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Abraham Lincoln was a very popular man among the American people. He was there for the country through the Civil War, whether good or bad times. In the North he was the great emancipationist. Lincoln was loved by many, and he could have used this to his advantage. One reason that he was so loved was because he had the ability to draw people's attention with his speeches. After his assassination and the reaction of the American people, the fact that he was so loved was a surprise to some people in Washington. There was a three week funeral procession where Lincoln's body was taken to the big cities by a special train so that the people could mourn him. "Democrat Charles Mason of Iowa thought the whole affair a political trick, like the 'crafty skill of Mark Antony in displaying to the Roman people the bloody mantle of Caesar'," (Donald, page 5). This analogy was made as an argument between political parties, but I think that it just shows how important Lincoln real ly was, being compared to the great Julius Caesar. It is widely believed that popular Preside... ...vement is wrong. Lincoln, however, when giving this speech doesn't come right out and say that he believes that they are wrong. In this way he gains more supporters by befriending them and not telling them straight out that they are wrong. At that point in time, Lincoln needed those votes. However, he got them by dishonest means. That really doesn't sound like the "Honest Abe" that all of the people knew and trusted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I believe that President Abraham Lincoln was a man with a lot of power. Lincoln was a very dangerous speaker. He could have easily used this power and his ability as an orator to become one of those men that are not satisfied with just the presidency and could have tried to have more. I believe that for this reason, Lincoln was a threat to our society. However, the people did not realize this because he had them so entranced by his wonderful speeches and writings. At a normal glance, it looks as if there is nothing hidden in those speeches. When they are looked at a little more closely though, one can see how Lincoln used his immense talent to trick the people into supporting him. Through his beautifully crafted orations, Abraham Lincoln gained many followers.

Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Carrefour Egypt

The British University in Egypt Faculty of Business Administration, Economics and Political Science Exploring OCB and its variables, its evaluation and implementation: The case of Carrefour Egypt A Dissertation submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the award of B. A. in Business Administration, Human Resources Management Specialization 2008/09 By Seif Mamdouh Ezzeldin ID: 100558 Honours Level – Class of 05/06 Under the Supervision of Dr. Hadia FakhrElDin 1 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour has not been dedicated enough research. The topic is quite new to the HR professionals and challenging. It is also challenging to conduct research on the topic as it has been suggested that OCB is inconsistent and has been stated as an ill-defined science. This paper analysis previous literature done on OCB in parallel with conducting field research in a large multinational in Egypt – in attempt to measure their employees’ OCB and bring the suggested evaluation method into practice. It has been concluded that OCB is not consistent among all employees. However, guidelines to effective evaluate it across different employees have been suggested. Adding to this, the questionnaires in this paper provides a jumpstart for future researchers who wish to evaluate the level of OCB in an organisation. 2 Contents 1. Introduction 1. 1 Research questions 1. 2 Research aims 1. 3 Research Methodology 2- Literature review 2. 1 Definition and history of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour 2. 2 Variables of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour 2. 3 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour can be controllable 2. 4 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour examination is challenging 2. 4. 1 Clarifying in and out role conduct 2. 5 Types of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour 2. Literature Summary 3. Aims and methodology 3. 1 Aims 3. 2 Methodology 3. 2. 1 Questionnaire (1) 3. 2. 2 Questionnaire (2) 3. 3 The research place 3. 4 Advantages and limitation of the methodology adapted 4. Data analysis 4. 1 Questionnaire (1) 4. 1. 1 Highest ranking agreed-with statements (above 66. 6 %) 4. 2 Questionnaire (2) 4. 2. 1 Most agreed upon as in-role (above 66. 6 %) 5. Conclusion 5. 1 Key aims and findings 5. 2 Limitation of the study 5. 3 Directions for future research References Appendix 4 8 9 10 12 12 14 17 19 20 21 25 27 27 30 31 33 34 35 37 37 40 42 46 48 48 51 52 53 55 1. Introduction International trade, European Union, labour mobility, ease of cross border transportation, competition, globalisation, desire to a better living standard and striving for achievement are all factors to employees shifting jobs. Unlike salaries, working conditions, job descriptions and appraisals, these factors cannot be controlled by an organisation. This has all increased interest in Human Resources Management (HRM), careers and Organisational Behaviours (OB) as sciences. An organisation can retain an employee who is not satisfied with his pay by increasing the salary. However, it cannot retain an employee who does not feel committed to the organisation or does not actually feel the organisation is holding on to him/her or treating him as a valued asset; as human resources of organisations were recently categorised as assets since they contribute, develop, control, manage and add value all other different assets (Bisson & Branscombe, 2008) The external factors listed are usually considered threats to an organisation as it is always in fear of losing its human resources. Imagine an organisation purchasing very expensive high-tech machines that generated a lot of profit giving it up to a competitor. The consequences are more or less the same if those high-tech machines were top performing employees who may need stronger motivation than money or benefits. The motivation then comes from a newer HR term called Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB). One of the characteristics of being a citizen is being committed (to the norms, cultures, behaviours, attitudes and rules). Commitment to an organisation is referred to as Organisational Commitment (OC). 4 OC has been defined as an attitude involving employee loyalty to the organisation with those employees who are committed being willing to contribute something of themselves to their organisations (Smith and Hoy, 1992). OC is one of the very first attitudes that lead to OCB. It is complemented by organisational trust, the degree of employee satisfaction, involvement in decision-making, sense of importance, career guidance and a sort of monetary motivation. What makes the study challenging is that OCB, an inexact science, is defined as discretionary, ‘extra-role' behaviour, not formally rewarded or punished by the organization, which, in the aggregate, benefits the organization by improving efficiency and/or effectiveness (Organ, 1988). Although OCB is not an obligation or not part of an evaluation process, employees who enjoy it find it an obligatory factor of the job. Free trade, common markets, economic and political unions – which all fall under the umbrella of globalisation is a main reason why organisations, locally and internationally are now seeking; new areas for sustainable competitive advantages and in the eyes of most, Human Resources are one of the most important factors that cannot easily be imitated by others, which defines a sustainable competitive advantage. As being referred to, OCB is a matter of personal choice that goes beyond the call of duty. It can be reflected in situations such as an employee having to decide on whether to attend an informal company event or spending the evening at home. 5 Below are some of the many types of OCB as identified by Bachrach et al. (2000: 516526) 1. Helping Behaviour or Altruism: Selfless concern to the help of others. For example, an employee may inform his/her absent colleague from a training about what has been missed 2. Sportsmanship: Knowing that there is no loss to a party when it comes to a win for the organisation 3. Organisational Loyalty: Promoting the organisation to outsiders as well as supporting and defending it against threats or attacks 4. Organisational Compliance: The behaviour of complying by the organisation? s rules and norms, considering that not every employee initially complies even though it is a must. 5. Individual Initiative: This entails engaging in task-related behaviours at a level beyond minimally required or generally expected levels that it takes on a voluntary flavour 6. Civic Virtue: This is showing willingness to actively participate in the organisation? governance It can now be said that OCB refers to the ability, willingness and motivation to react and perform in a behaviour that is not required and not aiming to be rewarded for it. One other reason why OCB is being an important issue at the moment is the existence of some countries such as Japan, where a person spends his or her entire life working for one organisation and affiliates his or her name with the organis ation. On the other extreme, there are countries such as Egypt where employees regard the organisation they work for part of their career. 6 Some research results indicate that desirable behaviour is determined and managed by the organization. With reference to the selected variables, this paper will justify whether they are in the controllable or uncontrollable environment of an organisation. 7 1. 1 Research questions The research is intended to answer the following questions through reviewing previous literature and conducting field analysis: What is an agreed upon definition for OCB? Why is OCB not disseminated among HR practitioners? Are there specific grounds for what is defined as in-role and out-role? What are the variables that can be related to OCB and influence the behaviour? Since there are variables that can influence the behaviour, can OCB be aimed for by an organisation or is it uncontrollable? How can the level of OCB be evaluated? 8 1. 2 Research aims The research aims to assess the willingness and level of OCB within a large multinational as Carrefour as well as showing the importance of OCB and briefly reviewing the emergence of HR in Egypt. This adds to the existing literature the justification of why OCB is not a well-known concept in organisations within the business sector of this economy. Moreover, clarification of the difference and the relationship between Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and the variables outlined in addition to practically bringing the variables and type into field work is aimed for. This research also aims to integrate the different Human Resources (HR) activities that sum up and lead to OCB. ? OCB is an inexact science and the paper will try to identify factors which lead to this behaviour, that is desirable by all organisations, and how it can benefit them through examining the direct and indirect relation between OCB and the variables which include: ? ? ? ? Satisfaction Empowerment Involvement Trust Confidence Reaching a clear-cut agreement on what is regarded as in-role and out-role through employees, and checking the findings with other similar sources for consistency is also aimed for. 9 1. 3 Research Methodology ? Literature including internet research Academic research portals, case studies Questionnaires: Two questionnaires are used as part of the field research for this paper. The questionnaires were given to a sample of twenty-five employees at Carrefour Obour City, Egypt ? ? ? Targeting random levels of employees throughout the organisation to test and evaluate their understanding of OCB ? The survey will include questions that test the three main variables and sub points listed above and will be designed to be as consistent as possible through getting the same result in different ways. ? The questions criterion of the questionnaire will be categorised into questions that measure 1. Trust; that include dimensions of integrity, competence and dependability Commitment; which will reflect the variable of culture Satisfaction Loyalty The six types of OCB studied in the literature . 3. 4. 5. 10 The surveys shall then attempt to evaluate to what extent is there OCB in Carrefour Egypt based on the variables. The results will be compared to: 1. The management expectations The relationships of the variables and literature on the topic The existence of OCB in the organisation, considering the fact that the management are not fully aware of OCB as a science and are c onsequently not directly enforcing it or progressing towards it 2. 3. 11 2- Literature review 2. Definition and history of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour OCB literature originited in the work of Katz and Kahn who argued that an important behaviour required of employees for the effective functioning of an organisation is the undertaking of innovative and spontanuous activities beyond the prescribed role requirement. (Vigoda 2000). Organisational Cititeznship Behaviour is the individual behavior that is descritionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the formal reward system, and that in the aggreagate promotes the effective functioning if the organisation (Organ as cited in Denis W Organ 1997). Organ in the same literature further clarifies that by descretionary, it is meant that the behavior is not an enforceable of the role or job description. It is is rather a matter of personal choice such that its ommision is not generally understood as punishable (1997: 86). Organizational citizenship behaviour has been the focus of attention from organizational behaviour researchers (Bachrach et al. , 2000; Organ & Ryan, 1995; Organ, 1997; George & Battenhausen, 1990 as cited in Chen; Huang; & Liu) since Organ in 1988 proposed that organizational citizenship behaviour could influence individual and organization erformance. There has, however, been very little interest in studying the topic. According to the research of Bachrach et al. (2000), very few interest and research was conducted on the topic before 1988. Bachrach et al. explain in their literature that an employee who religiously obeys all rules and regulations, even when no one is watching, is regarded as a â€Å"good citiz en† (2000: 524) 12 OCB construct has also been defined as â€Å"†¦ a general tendency to be co-operative and helpful in organisational settings †¦ (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002 as cited in Ladebo). Eran Vigoda supports the argument that OCB is regarded as the extra-role activities employees pursue by saying that extra-role behaviours describe activities beyond formal job requirement that one chooses to do without expecting any direct reward (2000: 191). The author also defined in-role as the tasks employees pursue as an integral part of a job. Views of a sample of employees in this regard will be shown further in this paper. Previous studies on employment relations indicated that employees viewed the practice of such behaviours (OCB) as personal obligations to co-operate with co-workers in solving task-related problems and to assist the organisation to achieve its performance objectives (Kessler, Purcell & Shapiro, 2004; Buyens , De Vos & Schalk, 2001; Janssens, Sels, & Van den Brande, 2003 as cited in Ladebo). Hence, this raises the question of whether OCB is still a beyond-role activity or not. If the suggestion is valid; this means that organisations without those behaviours shall fail. Robbins and Judge stated that evidence indicate that organisations only benefit from those employees who have a sense or citizenship to the organisation and those organisations outperform those that do not (2007: 30) and referred to such employees as a need for any successful organisation. 13 2. 2 Variables of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Katz (1964) states that three basic types of employee behaviours are critical for the overall effectiveness of any organization: ? tempted to remain within the system. carry out their role assignments in a dependable manner. ? innovative and spontaneous activity in achieving There must be organisational People must People must be objectives that go beyond the role specifications. Behaviours (2) and (3) are examples of OCB (Organ, 1988). Other examples of OCB are a willingness to give time helping others who have work-related problems, taking steps to prevent problems with other workers, and obeying organization rules, regulations and procedu res even when no one is watching. Podaskoff has argued that although research on OCB is on the increase, some unfortunate consequences has been brought up (Podaskoff et al. as cited in Chen, Huang & Liu). Adler, 1989; Hofstede, 1980 as cited in Chen, Huang & Liu further argued that different people from different cultures will not necessarily conform to the same set of norms and will have different beliefs of what can be viewed as OCB. It has been noted that the many occasions in which organizational functioning depends on supra-role behaviour cannot be prescribed or required in advance for a given job. Such 14 behaviours are referred to as the gestures that lubricate the social machinery of the organisation (Bateman as cited in Katz and Kahn 1966). Some examples as portrayed by the authors include helping co-workers with a job related problem or tolerating temporary impositions without complaint. These were referred to as citizenship behaviours (Bateman 1983). The author has also concluded that there is a fundamental connection between satisfaction and OCB. Organisational citizenship behaviour is influenced by job satisfaction. (Bateman 1983). OCB Researchers in at least 15 independent studies as well found a reliable statistical relationship between OCB and job satisfaction (Dennis W. Organ, 1995). Bateman (Bateman 1983). Job satisfaction, especially intrinsic satisfaction, was directly related to OCB. Extrinsic satisfaction did not mediate the relationship between Job characteristics and OCB (SuFen Chiu and Hsiao-Lan-Chen, 2005). As some appraisal methods such as achieving sales quote or calls are related to pay and extrinsic rewards, others including citizenship behaviour and the out-role behaviour are mainly motivated and encouraged through intrinsic rewards and one? s emotions regarding the self. Job characteristics are the attributes of jobs that can have motivational functions for employees. The job characteristics investigated by this study primarily include Hackman and Oldham's (1975) five core job characteristics (or dimensions) as well as the job interdependence concept. The five core job characteristics are as follows: job variety (the extent to which an employee can use different skills in doing his/her work), job identity (the extent to which an employee can complete the whole or identifiable piece of work), job significance (the extent of the significant impact of the job on others), autonomy (the 15 extent of freedom, independence, and discretion of an employee to plan his/her work pace and method), and feedback (the extent to which an employee knows his/her own job performance from the job itself, colleagues, supervisors or customers (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Job interdependence refers to the extent to which an employee in a team relies on others to complete his/her own tasks (Shea & Guzzo, 1987) (as cited in Su-Fen Chiu & Hsiao-Lan-Chen, 2005) The social exchange theory also suggests that when an employee feels satisfied with his or her job, he or she will reciprocate with positive behaviour (OCB) to benefit the organisation (Organ & Ryan, 1995). Organizations have become more reliant on interdependent social and departmental networks, which have changed the nature of core work activities within the individual work units (Ostroff & Smith, 1992). This suggests that it is not only enough for some employees to enjoy such behaviours; OCB must be transmitted across all employees as none work independently. 16 2. 3 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour can be controllable Previous literature suggested that the desirable behaviours, OCB, can be manageable by an organisation (Gene et al, 2000). A good social climate with involvement, fair and competent management, good communication, satisfaction with the organization, and an emphasis on good planning are suggested by the authors to implant this behaviour. Therefore, organisations are also part of the equation; not only the employees. Employees search for companies that are willing to be more committed to them, says Jan Stringer organizations who are more sensitive to their needs and who won't lay them off during economic slumps (2009). Committed employees tend to have personal values that are similar to those of the company. They are proud to be a part of their company, care about the fate of the company, and recommend the company as a great place to work. Stringer, in her article, suggests some factors in the workplace that influence commitment such as: ? ? ? ? ? Identifying the factors that satisfy employees Identifying factors that are source of dissatisfaction Ensuring that the recognition programmes are meaningful to employees Establishing clear career paths Establishing mentors to advise employees about career management inside the organization ? Identifying benefits that can be used to reward good performance. Ensuring the clarity of the organisation? values as well as ensuring its communication and practice across different organisational levels – clear values 17 help establish teamwork, cooperation and standards of behaviour within an organisation ? Examining the consistency and alignment of actions, policies, and procedures with values It has been argued that a leader? s fair or supportive behaviour may create a need in subordinates to reciprocate. One way to pay-back a leader for the support and fair behaviours is by performing better or engaging in citizenship behaviours (Vigoda 2000). Vigoda? s argument could be linked with the existence of the psychological contract that is concerned with an individual? s subjective beliefs, shaped by the organisation, regarding the terms of an exchange relationship between the individual employee and the organisation (Rousseau as cited in Beardwell & Claydon, 2007). It is of importance, however, to mention that some literature proposed an argument that OCB can be a threat to the internal health of an organisation. The literature suggests that OCB has more than two probabilities; present and absent – a third probability is that it can be of negative effect. Vigoda in his paper explains that supervisors and managers have direct influence over subordinates? behaviours by increasing fairness and equality in interactions with them. Hence, in organisations where there is political gamesmanships and power struggles, there will be low concern with values such as equity and fairness and this is where the in-role duties and OCB will be, for the first time, negatively related and result in dissonances (2000: 192). Empirical evidence indicates that employees, who perform less OCB, are likely to exhibit withdrawal behaviours, consider leaving the organisation (Ladebo, 2005 as cited in Ladebo). 18 2. 4 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour examination is challenging Valid evidence to why OCB is not a major concern to Human Resources departments in organisations as other HR focuses is the fact that the rewards that accrue to OCB are at best indirect and uncertain, as compared to more formal contributions such as high productivity or technical excellence or innovative solutions. Those contributions would have a greater likelihood of being expressly linked to the formal reward system. (Organ as cited in Denis W Organ 1997) Organizational citizenship is not a part of the formal evaluation and reward system therefore failure to engage in these behaviours cannot be formally penalized (Van Dyne, Cummings, & Parks as cited in Gene et al. , 2000) 19 2. 4. 1 Clarifying in and out role conduct There is a problem, however, that OCB aspects such as accepting tolerance and helping others would be considered part of the job (Organ as cited in Morrison 1994). Morrison concludes her study saying that OCB is ill-defined and varies from one employee to the next and between employees and supervisors. The greater an employee's perceived job breadth, the more activities he or she defines as in-role (1993:2). This supports the argument that OCB is an inexact science and is viewed differently by different people. The previous argument by Morrison suggests that a manager could define improving the morale of his team members as in-role yet a lower level employee would regard it as out-role. Hypothesis 1 in the article supports this. It has as well been suggested that one of the main problems with defining OCB is the fact that the concept of in and out role is inexact and unclear (Organ 1997) and this justifies the reason for experimenting what employees actually regard as in and out in this concern – theory on its own is a limitation in this regard. Vigoda? s literature as well supports that in and out-role is ill defined and varies from one employee to the other in her literature (2000: 191). 20 2. 5 Types of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour In an attempt to classify and breakdown OCB into different types, the author of this paper refers to Bachrach et al? literature (2000: 516). The authors organised different types of citizenship behaviours into seven main themes: (1) The helping behaviour involves voluntarily helping others with, or preventing the occurrence of, work-related problems and helping others by taking steps to prevent the creation of problems for co-workers (2000: 516, 517). Smith, Orga n & Near previously discussed this behaviour in the name of altruism (Becker & Vance, 1993). (2) Organ (1990b: 96 as cited in Bachrach et al. , 2000) has defined sportsmanship as â€Å"a willingness to tolerate the inevitable inconveniences and impositions of work without complaining. However, his definition seems somewhat narrower than the label of this construct would imply. The authors added to Organ? s definition that â€Å"good sports† are people who not only do not complain when they are inconvenienced by others, but also maintain a positive attitude even when things do not go their way are not offended when others do not follow their suggestions, are willing to sacrifice their personal interest for the good of the work group, and do not take the rejection of their ideas personally (2000: 517). (3) Organizational oyalty entails promoting the organization to outsiders, protecting and defending it against external threats, and remaining committed to it even under adverse conditions as well as 21 spreading goodwill and protecting the organization and acts of supporting and defending organizational objectives (2000: 517). (4) Organisational compliance regards the behaviour of complying to an organisation? s policy as a form of citizenship behaviour is that even though everyone is expected to obey company regulations, rules, and procedures at all times, many employees simply do not (2000: 517). The author of this article theoretically views this form of OCB inconsistent. However, because the authors argue that some employees do not originally comply by the policies and norms, the argument is considered valid. Smith, Organ & Near previously referred to organisational compliance by the term generalised compliance (Becker & Vance, 1993). (5) Individual initiative involves engaging in task-related behaviours at a level beyond minimally required or generally expected levels that it takes on a voluntary flavour. Such behaviours include voluntary acts of creativity and innovation designed to improve one's task or the organization's performance, persisting with extra enthusiasm and effort to accomplish one's job, volunteering to take on extra responsibilities, and encouraging others in the organization to do the same (2000: 524). (6) Civic virtue is projected by showing willingness to actively participate in the organisation? governance such as attending meetings and expressing opinion about what strategy the organisation ought to follow to monitor its environment for threats and opportunities such as keeping 22 up with changes in the industry that might affect the organisation, and to look out for its best interest even at great personal cost. These behaviours, add the authors, reflect an employee? s recognition of being part of a larger whole in the same way that citizens are members of a country and accept the responsibilities which this entails. The authors further outlines that this dimension has not received any empirical confirmation in the citizenship behaviour literature. However, it does appear to be a discretionary form of employee behaviour that is conceptually distinct from the other citizenship behaviour dimensions, and might be expected to improve organizational effectiveness through somewhat different mechanisms than the other forms of citizenship behaviour. All these behaviours are consistent with Organ? s definitions of employees going beyond the formal requirements. The literature portraying the seven types of OCB is regarded as very reliable and trusted as it is supported by arguments of several well known writers who provided literature on the same topic including George & Brief (1992), George & Jones (1997), Borman & Motowidlo (1993, 1997). Williams and Anderson (1991), Van Scotter & Motowidlo (1986) and (Organ, 1988) as cited in Bachrach et al. , 2000. As part of the field work for this research, results of a survey will be projected at a further stage showing what different employees regard as in-role and out-role. The actions that employees were asked to comment on were also formed in grouping of the first six types mentioned above, as the self-development? s limitation is that it cannot be measured. The questions constructed were mostly inspired from Morrison? s literature (1994: 1553). 23 However, the addition of the OCB types as measures is an added contribution in this paper. 24 2. 6 Literature Summary The thought about OCB originated with the argument of Katz and Kahn who argued that only the undertaking of innovative and spontaneous activities beyond the regular shall effectively function an organisation. Several authors pioneered by Denis W. Organ defined OCB as a behaviour that is of personal choice; it is discretionary, not intended for reward or recognition and considered beyond-role behaviour. As the term beyond-role was brought into existence, researches, academics and practitioners were not successful in finding agreed upon behaviour that is regarded in-role or out-role by everyone. Moreover, it has been stated that OCB is difficult to research and reach as it is not part of the formal evaluation and reward system. Authors agreed that different employees categorise the same behaviours differently: a manager could define assisting an intern in another department as in-role, while an employee in the same department as the manager would find it out-role. OCB has many related variables that were identified by several authors. Among them are job satisfaction, empowerment, commitment from both the employee and the organisation, involvement, feedback and others. Literature mainly stressed on the job characteristics and satisfaction. Some researches also argued that the OCB, the desired behaviour, can be achieved by an organisation? management through empowering and embedding their employees with toolkits that include research about determinants of satisfaction, dissatisfaction, loyalty, career advisement and behavioural modification. 25 Bachrach and other authors (2000) were able to define seven major types of OCB in their literature titled Organizational Citizenship Behaviours: A Critical Review of t he Theoretical and Empirical and Suggestions for Future Research that can provide great help to practitioners and researches attempting future research to classify, categorise and evaluate OCB within an organisation. 6 3. Aims and methodology 3. 1 Aims The research aims to assess the willingness and level or OCB within a large multinational as Carrefour. It has been observed that majority of the previous literature has either not recently tackled OCB practically and from a practitioner? s viewpoint or has not projected results in a manner simple and comprehended by some other researchers. Adding to this, the concept of OCB is not yet comprehended in the Egyptian business society. Human Resources itself is still considered a new concept. Since the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, employees were granted excess rights that employers themselves were complaining. The rights outweighed the duties and responsibilities. By 1980, the employment law in Egypt was passed and tried to maintain a fair balance between employer and employee rights and was regarded as successful. The law was majorly concerned with three stakeholders other than the employer and the employee; those were the employment office, health office and the social insurance office. Personnel and personnel affairs department (now named Human Resources) have started to exist in large hotels and banks in Egypt by mid 1980s. The concept started developing until what is now called Human Resources – ever since organisations begun realising that employees are one of the most valuable assets. The core duties of the Human Resources department, formerly known as personnel affairs, now include other sub departments such as compensation and benefits, equal opportunities, training and development as well as other functions. Despite the fact that the evolution of HR concepts in Egypt started tens of years earlier, the concept of OCB is not yet used between HR executives and personnel as other terminology is. 27 For this reason and for other reasons such as globalisation and free trade, foreign investment is on increase in the Egyptian economy and the requirement of valuable and durable staff is on the increase. Hence, awareness and application of this term is of extreme importance and this paper could initiate the action. The research also aims to answer the following: ? What is an agreed upon definition for OCB? o This question will be answered through reviewing previous literature and compiling the most important definitions of OCB. ? Why is OCB not disseminated among HR practitioners? o Literature review will be the main guide to answering this question. ? Are there specific grounds for what is defined as in-role and out-role? o The source depended upon for this aim is questionnaire (2) which will show what the sample studied regard is in and out role. ? What are the variables that can be related to OCB and influence the behaviour? Literature review will be the main guide to answering this question. ? Since there are variables that can influence the behaviour, can OCB be aimed for by an organisation or is it uncontrollable? o Literature review as well as questionnaires (1) and (2) will help answer this question as statements and questions in the surveys can guide HR professionals to find out where the loopholes are, and which areas employees need motivation or awareness at. 28 ? How can the level of OCB be evaluated? o The questionnaires given are one source of evaluating OCB. 9 3. 2 Methodology Reviewing the literature of renowned authors and writers about OCB and what has been previously said and published. Due to the fact that OCB is not widely discussed among HR academics and practitioners, extensive research was required to understand the origins, theories, implications and types of OCB. Furthermore, literature review provided solid grounds and a platform upon which the arguments are built. In addition to this, the review assisted the further field work carried on for this paper which will be discussed. The literature review also assisted the author to specify the scope of the paper as well as building knowledge base for future research. Two questionnaires were also used as part of the field research for this paper. Two different questionnaires were given to a sample of twenty-five employees at Carrefour Obour City, Egypt. The respondents were from random departments. However, it has been ensured that only employees and supervisors complete the survey – not workers, in order to ensure consistency and fairness of the results. An employee would find him/herself more committed to and rewarded by the organisation more than a security personnel – this is the present view of the business environment in this culture. 30 3. 2. 1 Questionnaire (1) This is a twenty-five question questionnaire that has been compiled and structured assessing the environment at Carrefour as a large multinational where employees are highly focused on their jobs and do not frequently interact with the top management. The questions were assessing dimensions of trust, integrity, confidence, empowerment, satisfaction, commitment and involvement. The choices for respondents were (1) Agree, (2) Neutral, (3) Disagree. The dimension of trust tackles issues of trust between the employee and his/her organisation, the treatment and his/her colleagues. The dimension of integrity is focused on whether the respondent feels that integrity is demonstrated within the actions and promises of the organisation or not. The confidence is primarily focused on whether the employee is confident about the organisation and management? s capabilities or not. Empowerment assesses whether or not the employee feels empowered enough to step outside his/her department, have opinions in other aspects of the organisation and encouraged to provide feedback in a decent manner even if not required. It has also been tested whether the employees are satisfied or not, in terms of the job, surrounding personnel, the organisation and job security. Commitment was not extensively focused upon in Questionnaire (1) as the primary focus of Questionnaire (2) is commitment – Organisational Citizenship Behaviour in particular. However, Questionnaire (1) assesses the commitment of the employees in the aspect of loyalty and feeling that the organisation is also concerned with him/her as an employee 31 Finally, the involvement dimension tests whether the employee is involved in departmental work, organisational activities, announcements and decision making or not. The results are to indicate whether the employees fulfil and find fulfilled the dimensions mentioned in the organisation and are willing to portray citizenship behaviour or not. 32 3. 2. 2 Questionnaire (2) This is an eighteen question questionnaire adopted from Morrison (1994). Adjustments were made and the questions are restructured and divided to serve the six types of OCB referred to in the literature – three questions assessing each type/component and the respondents mark whether they regard the statement written as in-role (part of what they regard as their formal duty) or outrole( referred to as OCB). The six types/components are individual initiative, organisational loyalty, sportsmanship, civic virtue, helping behaviour and organisational compliance. 33 3. 3 The research place Carrefour is a leading operator in the retail industry worldwide, French based. It has been lastly ranked in the second half of 2007 as the first among twenty-two competitors and the thirty-second most profitable organisation among five-hundred (Global 500, 2007). It is the second-largest retailer in Europe and the first in Egypt. The Carrefour group has fifteen-thousand stores company-operated and franchises. Carrefour Egypt is a franchise to Majid-Al-Futtaim (MAF Group), a renowned business man from the United Arab Emirates who also operates Carrefour in several countries other than Egypt. Carrefour International? s principles guiding the HR policy: 1. Freedom 2. Responsibility 3. Sharing 4. Respect 5. Integrity 6. Solidarity 7. Progress In values (1) to (5), the company included their employees as part of the principles and policy, expressing great concern towards them. In addition to this, points (2), (3), (4) and (5) in particularly is directly related, and part of OCB as have been discussed. 34 3. 4 Advantages and limitation of the methodology adapted Questionnaires as the main source for this field research where chosen as they carry the following advantages: ? As some of the questions are direct and the answers must be confidential, many respondents displayed relief as they found it there are no personal details required There is no risk of conflicting meanings – the questions are set and are not interpreted differently to different respondents. This makes translating a copy of the questionnaire into Arabic a valid action ? ? The questions do not differ from a respondent to another Questions can be re-organised and tackled with different manners after the surveys are c ompleted There is a written record of people? s responses ? ? ? Easier to administer Less time consuming Easier to analyze There are, however, some disadvantages as well: ? ? ? Some people were possibly not honest with their responses Some people might have not fully understood some of the questions Some people may left blank spaces There has been a possibility that some people were biased due to the perception or belief that there is a pre-suggested or pre-agreed upon answer 35 ? ? ? Continuation of fear that the questionnaires could be seen by the HR department The questionnaires and data analysis rely on the honesty of respondents Some of the respondents were confused as Carrefour Egypt HR carry out questionnaires to their personnel twice a year, once in June Limited questions equals limited analysis, which is always a limitation of questionnaires Due to the existence and awareness of these disadvantages and limitations, actions were taken accordingly: ? Extreme confidentiality w as given to respondents. The questionnaires projected the aim and privacy assurance to the respondents. Moreover, some of the respondents have been verbally re-assured that the surveys are kept confidential. ? In addition to this, further assurance was made to some of the respondents that the researcher is not affiliated with the organisation in any way and it has also been made clear by the HR personnel that this questionnaire has nothing to do with the company? s formal periodical evaluation. 36 4. Data analysis 4. 1 Questionnaire (1) This is a twenty-five question questionnaire that has been compiled and structured assessing the environment at Carrefour as a large multinational where employees are highly focused on their jobs and do not frequently interact with the top management. The questions were assessing dimensions of: ? Integrity and equal opportunity: This dimension tests whether integrity is demonstrated in actions by the management and employees of the organisation as well as testing fairness among employees and equal opportunities. Example statement: This organization treats its employees fairly and justly ? Confidence: This dimension measures the degree of confidence among employees about the skills and abilities of the organisation as well as confidence of being generally valued. Example statement: I feel very confident about this organization? skills ? Empowerment: This dimension evaluates the degree of empowerment, autonomy and freedom that employees feel they are equipped with. Example statement: My manager/supervisor encourages creativity/innovation by reducing the fear of failure 37 ? General satisfaction: This dimension questions the level of satisfaction employees have – satisfaction from the job, working conditions, job security as w ell as informal networks. Example statement: The organization fails to satisfy the needs of its employees like me ? Commitment : This dimension evaluates the degree of commitment in the organisation. Not only whether employees are committed; but also if they feel the organisation is mutually committed. Example statement: I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment to its employees and me ? Involvement: The involvement dimension evaluates to what extent are the employees involved in different aspects of the organisations – involvement in non-work related activities, company posts and updates, competitive position and information on other departments. Example statement: I am usually aware and my supervisor keeps me informed of the company? s ongoing situations The results of the survey are shown in Figure 4. 1 38 Agree Satisfied This organization treats its employees fairly and justly This organization can be relied on to keep its promises I believe that this organization takes the opinions of its employees like me into account when making decisions I feel very confident about this organization? skills I think it is important to watch this organization closely so that it does not take advantage of its employees and me I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment to its employees and me Compared to my previous workplace(s), I value my relationship with this organization more I feel a sense of loyalty to this organization I think other employees are happy in their interactions with this organization The organization fails to satisfy the needs of its employees like me I am aware of the company? overall s trategy I feel my department gets support and teamwork from other areas within the company My manager/supervisor encourages creativity/innovation by reducing the fear of failure My manager/supervisor demonstrates professionalism I understand how the company's strategy differentiates us from the competition I am usually aware and my supervisor keeps me informed of the company? s ongoing situations (ups and downs, etc) How satisfied are you with with your job? How satisfied are you with the morale of the people with whom you work How satisfied are you with your own morale? I feel that my work gives me a sense of personal accomplishment How satisfied are you that you receive appropriate recognition for your contributions? How satisfied are you with your overall job security? How satisfied are you with your informal life and networks within your organisation? Does your company show enough consideration to your personal time outside work? As an employee, I feel empowered to make decisions beyond my job description 14 13 7 23 6 18 23 21 5 2 18 16 19 23 20 15 21 12 16 20 12 14 8 12 7 Neutral 8 9 12 0 10 7 1 3 14 11 4 6 3 1 4 9 3 10 5 4 8 8 12 9 12 Disagree Dissatisfied 3 3 6 2 9 0 1 1 6 12 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 5 3 5 4 6 Percentage % Agree Neutral Satisfied 56 52 28 92 24 72 92 84 20 8 72 64 76 92 80 60 84 48 64 80 48 56 32 48 28 12 12 24 8 36 0 4 4 24 48 12 12 12 4 4 4 4 12 16 4 20 12 20 16 24 Disagree Dissatisfied 32 36 48 0 40 28 4 12 56 44 16 24 12 4 16 36 12 40 20 16 32 32 48 36 48 Figure 4. 1 Questionnaire (1) responses 39 4. 1. 1 Highest ranking agreed-with statements (above 66. 6 %) The highest ranking statements have been grouped into four categories: Job contributors, supervisory contributors, involvement contributors and commitment contributors. 1- Job: ? I feel that my work gives me a sense of personal accomplishment (80%) How satisfied are you with with your job? (84%) This shows that the majority of employees in Carrefour are both satisfied with their jobs there and feel that their jobs add to their sense of personal accomplishment. This can be attributed to the fact that Carrefour Egypt asks the employees for eval uations, said Mr. Hussein, which partially focus on weather an employee: ? ? ? ? Likes the job and likes the organisation Likes the job but dislikes the organisation Dislikes the job but likes the organisation Dislikes the job and the organisation – Supervisory: ? ? My manager/supervisor demonstrates professionalism (92%) My manager/supervisor encourages creativity/innovation by reducing the fear of failure (76%) This shows that the majority of employees are satisfied with their managers and supervisors in terms of being a „role-mode? within the organisation or being empowered 40 enough by them to be calculated risk-takers. This is attributed to the complex selection and recruitment at Carrefour Egypt, as well as a periodical corporate review. 3. Involvement: ? ? ? I am aware of the company? s overall strategy (72%) I feel very confident about this organization? s skills (92%) I understand how the company's strategy differentiates us from the competition (80%) This shows that employees across Carrefour are aware of the company? s strategy and therefore aware of the vision and mission statements. The result shown is possibly because of communication the vision and mission across the organisation, as well as the employees initiating eagerness to learn more about the organisation. 4. Commitment: ? I feel a sense of loyalty to this organization (84%) Compared to my previous workplace(s), I value my relationship with this organization more (92%) ? I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment to its employees and me (72%) The majority of the employees value Carrefour more than their previous employers as well as feeling they are loyal to this organisation. This goes back to the fact that commitment is shown both from the organisation and the employees at the same time. 41 4. 2 Questionnaire (2) This is an eighteen question questionnaire adopted from Morrison (1994). Adjustments were made and the questions are restructured and divided to serve the six types of OCB referred to in the literature – three questions assessing each type/component and the respondents mark whether they regard the statement written as in-role (part of what they regard as their formal duty) or out-role( referred to as OCB). The six dimensions are: ? Individual initiative: This dimension evaluates to what extension the employees themselves are eager to perform more duties than their job entails. Example statement: Thinking you should also think of what is best for the organisation even if not asked or involved ? Organisational loyalty: This dimension examines the level of loyalty employees possess. Loyalty in this case is examined by actions employees perform that are non-work related that prove they are, for no reward, loyal to the organisation. Example statement: Attending voluntary functions that help the organisation? s image ? Sportsmanship: This dimension tests to what extents could employees prioritise work requirements and exceptions even on their own expense. 2 Example statement: Not taking excess time off, even if you have extra vacation days ? Civic virtue: Other than fulfilling the job, some employees show willingness to participate or provide viewpoints in governing the organisations. Civic virtue tests this perspective. Example statement: Attending voluntary meetings considered important ? Helping behaviour: The helping behaviour is shown by employees through t he willingness to help others and as well prevent problems for occurrence. Example statement: Covering for co-workers who are absent or on break ? Organisational compliance: Although organisational rules and policies should be abided by, some employees still don? t. This dimensions, therefore, tests to what extent employees comply. Example statement: Not spending time on personal telephone conversations Based on questionnaire (2) and the responses, Figure 4. 2 shows the contribution of each dimension to the whole (OCB) as shown by the employees at Carrefour. Figure 4. 3 shows the results of Questionnaire (2) 43 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour The Dimensions Individual Initiative Organisational loyalty Sportsmanship %12 Civic virtue Helping behaviour Organisational compliance %19 %19 %31 %8 %11 Figure 4. 2 OCB components 44 Action Thinking you should also think of what is best for the organisation even if not asked or involved Keeping up with changes and developments in the organisation Helping people outside department when they have a problem Reading and keeping up with organizational announcements Helping organize departmental get-togethers Attending voluntary functions that help the organisation? image Coming to work early if needed Having to work overtime because of a colleague? s mistake, not you Not taking excess time off, even if you have extra vacation days Attending voluntary meetings considered important Volunteering to do things without being asked Helping orient new people even when not asked Covering for co-workers who are absent or on break Helping others with work when they have been absent Giving time to help others with work-related problems Being punctual everyday regardless of weather, traffic, etc Not spending time on personal telephone conversations Not spending time in non work related issues Regarded in-role 9 Percentage % 36 Dimension Individual Initiative 4 5 18 2 5 3 6 19 17 4 21 11 20 13 22 23 25 16 20 72 8 20 12 24 76 68 16 84 44 80 52 88 92 100 Individual Initiative Individual Initiative Organisational loyalty Organisational loyalty Organisational loyalty Sportsmanship Sportsmanship Sportsmanship Civic virtue Civic virtue Civic virtue Helping behaviour Helping behaviour Helping behaviour Organisational compliance Organisational compliance Organisational compliance Figure 4. 2 Questionnaire (2) responses Adopted from Morrison, E. W. 1994) „Role definitions and organizational citizenship behaviour: The importance of the employee? s perspective.? Academy of Management Journal, 37, 1556 45 4. 2. 1 Most agreed upon as in-role (above 66. 6 %) 1. Organisational compliance: ? ? ? Being punctual everyday regardless of weather, traffic, etc (88%) Not spending time on personal telephone conversations (92%) Not spending time in non work related issues (100%) It is clearl y observed the majority of employees regard complying with rules, policies and the psychological contract as in-role behaviours. In theory, organisational compliance has to be regarded as in-role already. However, due to the suggestion that not all employees comply, it has been surveyed. This proves the opposite of Morrison? s hypothesis that it might not be regarded as in-role – it is. The dimension of organisational compliance is the most agreed upon as in-role among the questioned employees and constitutes thirty-one percent of the OCB in Carrefour. Like in Morrison? s research, organisational compliance is the most agreed upon dimension as being in-role – 89, 80 and 68 percent respectively. . Helping behaviour: ? Helping others with work when they have been absent (80%) This may be attributed to the culture of Egyptian people more than for the business environment – people known to be helpful and cooperative. In Morrison? s research, agreement to this behaviour as in-role was 78 percent. 3. Civic Virtue: ? Attending voluntary meetings considered important (68%) 46 In comparison to the original research, the result here shows 18% higher agreement. This would further justify the 80% loyalty demonstrated in questionnaire (1). 4. Sportsmanship: ? Not taking excess time off, even if you have extra vacation days (76%) This is backed up by the fact that 80% of the respondents in questionnaire (1) agree to the statement which says that their work gives them a sense of personal accomplishment. Moreover, it supports the result in section 4. 4. 1 as job satisfaction is one of the highest contributors to the employees? commitment. The result in this research exceeds the original work by 10 percent. 5. Organisational loyalty: ? Reading and keeping up with organisational announcements (72%) The original research exceeds this result by 12 percent. However, 72 percent of employees regarding this statement as in-role is quite a satisfactory rate, especially that only 56 percent of the employees agreed to the statement that their manager/supervisor cares to keep them updated in questionnaire (1). Furthermore, loyalty has been also proved in several other statements. The general agreement between this research and the original research done by Morrison (1994) shows consistency and proof that these elements are regarded as in-role by most employees. 47 5. Conclusion 5. 1 Key aims and findings The research aims at defining OCB from an academic and a practical viewpoint as well as assessing the willingness and level of OCB within a large multinational as well as showing the importance of OCB and briefly reviewing the emergence of HR in Egypt. Moreover, clarification of the difference and the relationship between Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and the variables outlined in addition to practically bringing the variables and type into field work is aimed for. This research also aims to integrate the different Human Resources (HR) activities that sum up and lead to OCB. The research questions: ? What is an agreed upon definition for OCB? (Chapter 2) Organisational Cititeznship Behaviour is the individual behavior that is descritionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the formal reward system, and that in the aggreagate promotes the effective functioning if the organisation. It is also regarded as the extra-role activities employees pursue by saying that extra-role behaviours describe activities beyond formal job requirement that one chooses to do without expecting any direct reward. ? Why is OCB not disseminated among HR practitioners? Chapter 2) OCB is still regarded as a new term. Moreover, there has been a very limited number of literature on OCB in comparison with other HR terms. Adding to this the difficulty of defining the actions and conduct that is regarded as beyond-role. 48 ? What is defined as in-role and out-role? (Chapters 2 & 4) There has been agreed upon behaviours for what is regarded as in-role. As for out-role or beyond-re sponsibility conduct, it is concluded that the difference in employment level will always let individuals interpret in and out-role differently. Hence, it is also concluded that OCB varies proportionately with the level of employment which agrees with the common sense. Like most managers are more satisfied with their jobs (due to pay, prestige and benefits), they are also more committed and portray more citizenship behaviours. Furthermore, like a new employee is not used to the organisation and not regarded as loyal yet, his OCB is still in the introduction phase. ? What are the variables that can be related to OCB and influence the behaviour? (Chapter 2) The literature outlined many variables that are related and complements the favourable behaviour. Among these variables are job satisfaction, loyalty, commitment, sportsmanship, compliance and integrity. ? Since there are variables that can influence the behaviour, can OCB be aimed for by an organisation or is it uncontrollable? How can the level of OCB be evaluated? (Chapters 2 & 4) From the literature, it is concluded that organisations can focus more on studying the variables and elements that lead to the favourable behaviours desired such as identifying the factors that satisfy employees, establishing clear career paths and examining the consistency and alignment of actions, policies, and procedures with values. In addition this, the field research in chapter 4 summarises and adds the 49 contributors, variables and components of OCB which, if read and analysed by organisations, will provide assistance on how to modify their employees behaviours and enable them to reach the behaviour needed for success and prosperity of any successful organisation. The surveys conducted provide valid foundation to organisations who wish to evaluate their level of OCB as the surveys successfully reached this aim – with further modifications that suit every organisation. 50 5. Limitation of the study Due to the fact that OCB has not been granted enough interest from researchers and practitioners up-to-date, the amount of literature available was not of high assistance to the theoretical study. Moreover, direct help from the practitioners, especially in Egypt was difficult to find as they have not been informed of OCB and its implications. Adding to this, many organisations are not in favour of researcher s conducting surveys in their premises, especially of critical and confidential information such as commitment, loyalty, fairness and trust. Another limitation is the small number of sample as only one branch of Carrefour (Obour) was examined. This may influence the result as not to reflect the opinions of employees in Carrefour in Egypt, but only Carrefour Obour. However, the researcher has been assured that the same managerial and leadership style as well as working conditions are followed not only in Carrefour Egypt; however it is internationally abided by. The topic also limits researchers due to the fact that the level of OCB differs from one employment level to another. Finally, it is concluded that as a conduct or action is considered to be in the employment/psychological contract, it is automatically more regarded as in-role. Evidence of this is the fact that organisational compliance is the highest contributor to the OCB of the organisation while the all elements of the compliance are elements of any employment contract. 51 5. 3 Directions for future research It has been concluded in this paper that the level of OCB varies from an employment level and duration to another. As a result, the topic needs to be further expanded in future research. Future field research should assess different levels of employees as well as grouping employees that have been employed in an organisation for similar durations to maintain fairness and consistency. Furthermore, research in different types of organisations should take place. It is expected that in a service industry, the level of OCB should be higher than in others due to the fact that employees are more empowered as they interact more with their customers – the main source of revenue and sustainability. The future research should take place in different industries and questioning whether the results could or could not be compared against each other. Adding to this, conducting the research in a non-for-profit organisation would be a very good example of OCB for reasons that include the fact that NPOs do not compensate its employees, or the compensation is not profit generating. As a result, employees have more committing reasons than monetary rewards and motivation. This research was initially intended to research this issue. However, due to the limited time and resources, this has not been feasible. A suggested NPO is AIESEC (www. aiesec. org). An international NPO considered role model to NGOs and NPOs. Members of this organisation demonstrate the highest levels of OCB that can be observed. Word count 9,072 52 References Bachrach, et al. (2000) „Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical and Suggestions for Future Research.? Journal of Management, 26, 51. 1-61. 1 Bateman, T (1983) „Job Satisfaction and the Good Soldier: The Relationship between Affect and Employee †Citizenship†? 26(4), 587-595 Beardwell, J & Claydon, T (2007) Human Resource Management: A Contemporary Approach. Essex: Prentice Hall. Becker, T & Vance, R (1993) „Construct validity of three types of organisational citizenship behaviour: an illustration of the direct product model with refinements.? 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Retrieved May 16, 2009, from http://EzineArticles. com/? expert=Jan_Stringer Vigoda, E (2000) „Internal politics in public administration systems: An empirical examination of its relationship with job congruence, organizational citizenship behaviour, and in-role performance.? Public Personnel Management, 29, 185-210 Interview with Mr. Amr Hussein, Carrefour Obour H. R. Manager. Dated May 12, 2009 at Carrefour Obour offices. (2007, 23 July) „Carrefour?. Fortune Global Five 500. Retrieved May 18, 2009 from http://money. cnn. com/magazines/fortune/global500/2007/snapshots/7881. html www. carrefour. com 54 Appendix Questionnaire (1) This is not a test. There are no „right? or „wrong? responses to the statements that follow. A response is only „right? if it reflects your personal opinion, and the strength of your reaction, as accurately as possible. Please indicate the level of your agreement with the following statements. Answers are to be kept confidential and shall only be used for academic purposes; no names or personal information required. It should not take more than 10 minutes to complete this questionnaire. This organization treats its employees fairly and justly Agree Disagree This organization can be relied on to keep its promises Agree Disagree Neutral Neutral I believe that this organization takes the opinions of its employees like me into account when making decisions Agree Neutral Disagree I feel very confident about this organization? skills Agree Disagree I think it is important to watch this organization closely so that it does not take advantage of its employees and me Agree Neutral Disagree I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment